01 SECTIONS UNIQUE TO RESEARCH REPORT AND GENERAL RULES TO CONSIDER

COURSE INFO

TERM                       Spring 2024                                                 TIME     S 8.00 – 11.00 AM

Dr. Mohamed Hadji    mohamed.hadji@univ-saida.dz

mohamedhadji1983@gmail.com

Lesson 01   SECTIONS UNIQUE TO RESEARCH REPORT   AND GENERAL RULES TO CONSIDER

 

1.      Sections unique to research report  

Once researchers have conducted and completed their study, they must write a report of their procedures and findings. The unique features of a report describe what was done in the study, how it was done, what results were obtained, and what they mean. Although the details of a quantitative study may differ somewhat from those of a qualitative study, the emphasis in both should be on accurate description so that the reader is clear about what happened. The old standbys—what, why, where, when, and how—are, as always, good guides to follow.

 

2.      General rules to consider

A research report should be written as clearly and concisely as possible. If possible, jargon is to be avoided. Research reports are always written in the past tense. As might be expected, spelling, punctuation, and grammar must be correct. (The spelling and grammar checks on a computer are a big help here!)

A style manual should be consulted before beginning the report. A good source, recommended by most journal editors and used by many researchers when preparing their research reports, is the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA), 6th ed. (2010). Although various manuals emphasize different rules, all have certain ones in common. The use of abbreviations and contractions, for example, is usually discouraged, the only exceptions being those that are commonly used and understood (such as IQ) or those that are repeated frequently in the report. Authors of references cited in the report are usually referred to by last name only (first name and middle initials are given only in the bibliography). Further, honorifics (e.g., Dr., Professor) are not given.

Once a report is completed, it is a good idea to have someone who is knowledgeable about the topic review the report for clarity and errors. Reading the report aloud also can help check for mistakes in grammar as well as identify unclearly written passages. Computers make it easy to rearrange words and sentences, check spelling and grammar, and number pages automatically.

 Ø  The format of a report

It is the way how it is organized. Research reports generally follow a format that reflects the steps involved in the study itself; they also have many of the same components included in research proposals. Figure 25.1 illustrates the organization of a typical research report. Let us address those components we have not yet discussed.

Ø  Abstract

The abstract is a brief summary of the entire research report. It is usually no longer than a paragraph or two and is typed on a separate page with the word "Abstract" centered at the top of the page. Usually, an abstract contains a brief statement of the research problem, the hypothesis, a description of the sample, followed by a brief summary of the procedures, including a description of the instrument(s) used, how the data were collected, the results of the study, and the researcher’s conclusions.

Ø  Results/Findings

 As discussed previously, the results of a study can be presented only in a research report; ordinarily, there are no results in a proposal (unless results of some exploratory research or a pilot study are included as part of the background of the proposal). A report of the results, sometimes called the findings, is included near the end of the report. The findings of the study constitute the results of the researcher’s analysis of his or her data—that is, what the collected data reveal. In comparison-group studies, the means and standard deviation for each group on the posttest measure(s) usually are reported. In correlational studies, correlation coefficients and scatterplots are reported. In survey studies, percentages of responses to the questions asked, crossbreak tables, contingency coefficients, and so forth, are given. The results section should describe any statistical techniques that were applied to the data and the results that were obtained. Each result should be discussed in relation to the topic studied. The results of any statistical tests of significance should be reported. Qualitative data analysis should present clear descriptions (and sometimes quotations) to support and/or illustrate results obtained through observations and/or interviews. Tables and figures should present clear summaries of the data analysis. It is particularly important in the results section of a research report that the data collection procedures be clearly described, including what kinds of analyses were done. Here are two examples taken from the literature:

(From a study investigating the effects of cooperative learning among Hispanic students in elementary social studies): “Means and standard deviations of raw scores for the social studies achievement pretests and posttests, as well as the adjusted means for the social studies achievement posttest, are reported. Results of the ANCOVA revealed a statistically significant main effect for treatment, F(1,93) = 25.72, p < .001, favoring cooperative learning over traditional instruction; however, no statistically significant effects were found for gender or for an interaction between treatment and gender on social studies achievement. The correlation r between the pretest and the posttest was .67 (p = .001).”

 (From a study investigating the relationship between time to completion and achievement on multiple-choice items): “The relationship between time to completion and examination achievement was explored separately for mid-semester and final examinations. The resultant correlation coefficients were low and not statistically significant (p > .05). Although the range of coefficients extended from +.27 (+.02) to -.30, the coefficients of determination for these values suggest that 0.04% to 9% of variance in examination performance could be explained by differences in time to completion variables.”

Ø  Discussion

The discussion section of a report presents the author’s interpretation of what the results imply for theory and/or practice. This includes, in hypothesis-testing studies, an assessment of the extent to which the hypothesis was supported. In the discussion section, researchers place their results in a broader context. Here they recapitulate any difficulties that were encountered, make note of the limitations of the study, and suggest further, related studies that might be done. To the extent possible, we believe the results and discussion sections of a study should be kept distinct from each other. A discussion section will typically go considerably beyond the data in attempting to place the findings in a broader perspective. It is important that the reader not be misled into thinking that the investigator has obtained evidence for something that is only speculation. To put it differently, there should be no room for Discussion: There is often disagreement regarding the statements in the results section of the report. The statements should follow clearly and directly from the data that were obtained. There may be much argumentation and disagreement about the broader interpretation of these results, however.

Let us consider the results of a study on teacher personality and classroom behavior. As hypothesized in that study, correlations of .40 to .50 were found between a test of control need on the part of the teacher and (a) the extent of controlling behavior in the classroom as observed and (b) ratings by interviewers as “less comfortable with self” and “having more rigid attitudes of right and wrong.” These were the results of the study and should clearly be identified as such in a report. In the discussion section, however, these findings might be placed in a variety of controversial perspectives. Thus, one investigator might propose that the study provides support for the selection of prospective teachers, arguing that anyone scoring high in control need should be excluded from a training program because this characteristic and the classroom behavior it appears to predict are undesirable in teachers. In contrast, another investigator might interpret the results to support the desirability of attracting people with higher control need into teaching. This investigator might argue that, at least in inner-city schools, teachers scoring higher in control need are likely to have classrooms that are more orderly.

 Clearly, both of these interpretations go far beyond the results of the particular study. There is no reason the investigator should not make such an interpretation, if it is clearly identified as such and does not give the impression that the results of the study provide direct evidence in support of the interpretation. Many times a researcher will sharply differentiate between results and interpretation by placing them in different sections of a report and labeling them accordingly. At other times, a researcher may intermix the two, making it difficult for the reader to distinguish the results of the study from the researcher’s interpretations. (For examples of discussions, see any of the published research reports presented in Chapters 13 through 17 and 19 through 24.)

Ø  Suggestions for Further Research

Normally, this is the final section of a report. Based on the findings of the present study, the researcher suggests some related and follow-up studies that might be conducted in the future to advance knowledge in the field.

Ø  References

Finally, the references (bibliography) should list all sources that were used in the writing of the report. Every (yes, every!) source cited in the report must be included in the references, and every (yes, every!) report cited there must appear in the body of the report. The reference section should begin on a new page. Usually, a hanging-indent format is used, with all sources listed alphabetically by authors’ last names.

Ø  Footnotes

Footnotes are numbered consecutively, using a superscript Arabic numeral, in the order in which they appear in the text of the report.

Ø  Figures

 Figures consist of drawings, graphs, charts, even photographs or pictures. All figures should be numbered consecutively and referred to in the text of the report. They should be included in a report only when they can convey information better or more clearly than the text itself or when they can summarize information that would require an extremely long explanation. Each figure should be accompanied by a caption that captures the essence of the information illustrated.

Ø  Tables

 Tables also should be used only when they can summarize or convey information better, more simply, or more clearly than the text alone. Tables (and figures) should always be viewed as supplements to text, never as providing new information meant to stand-alone. They should always, however, be referred to in the text. Like figures, each table should have a brief title that captures the essence of the information contained in the table. It is a good idea to consult the APA Publication Manual for specifics regarding the presentation of figures and tables in a research report.

TIPS : A FEW COMMENTS ABOUT QUALITATIVE RESEARCH REPORTS

Much of the information that needs to be included in a qualitative research report is similar to that included in a quantitative research report. At present, however, there is no commonly agreed-on format for a qualitative research report. One currently finds a variety of formats, with researchers often including such things as poems, stories, diaries, photographs, essays, even song lyrics and drawings in their reports.

Two noticeable characteristics of qualitative reports that are rarely found in quantitative reports are that (1) qualitative researchers often write their reports in the first person (e.g., using the pronouns I or we rather than the researcher or the author), and (2) they often use the active rather than the passive voice (“We observed classroom X,” rather than “Classroom X was observed by the researcher.”)

Furthermore, the issue of confidentiality is of greater concern in qualitative than quantitative reports. Often, a considerable amount of information, much of it extremely private, is obtained from the participants in a qualitative study. Because of this and also because the sample size is usually much smaller than in quantitative studies, a simple guarantee of confidentiality may be insufficient to protect identity. Therefore, fictitious names should generally be used. If a researcher is conducting a series of interviews in a high school over a period of weeks, for example, readers who are familiar with the high school might be able to recognize whom he or she interviewed. The use of pseudonyms, therefore, is further protection of their identity.